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Canal de oceanos panama, Panama Canal
Although the concept of a canal in Panama dates back to the early 16th century, the first attempt to construct a canal began in 1880 under French leadership. After this attempt collapsed, the work was finally completed by the United States, and the canal opened in 1914. The building of the 77 kilometer (48 mi) canal was plagued by problems, including disease (particularly malaria and yellow fever) and landslides. As many as 27,500 workers are estimated to have died during construction of the canal,canal de oceanos panama .Since opening, the canal, canal de oceanos panama, has been enormously successful, and continues to be a key conduit for international shipping. Each year the canal accommodates the passage of more than 14,000 ships, carrying more than 203 million tons of cargo. By 2002 about 800,000 ships had passed through the canal,canal de oceanos panama. Description
The canal de oceanos panama, Panama Canal connects the Gulf of Panama with the Caribbean Sea. Because of the S-shape of the Isthmus of canal de oceano panama, Panama the canal runs from south-east at the Pacific end to north-west at the Atlantic; to avoid confusion the canal authorities classify transits of the canal as northbound (Pacific to Atlantic) and southbound (Atlantic to Pacific). The canal can accommodate vessels from small private yachts up to fairly large commercial ships. The maximum size of vessel which can use the canal, canal de oceanos panama, is known as Panamax; an increasing number of modern ships exceed this limit, and are known as post-Panamax vessels. A typical passage through the canal by a cargo ship takes around nine hours. 14,011 vessels passed through the canal, canal de oceanos panama in 2005, with a total capacity of 278.8 million tons, making an average of almost 40 vessels per day. Layout The canal, canal de oceanos panama, consists of two artificial lakes, several improved and artificial channels, and three sets of locks. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake, acts as a reservoir for the canal, canal de oceanos panama. The layout of the canal as seen by a ship transiting from the Pacific end to the Atlantic is as follows: Due to the local geography the main direction of sailing is North-West, whereas the global direction from Pacific to Atlantic is east. * From the beginning of the buoyed entrance channel in the Gulf of Panama, ships travel 13.2 kilometers (8.2mi) up the channel to the Mira Flores locks, passing under the Bridge of the Americas * The two-stage Mira Flores lock system, including the approach wall, is 1.7kilometres (1.1mi) long, with a total lift of 16.5 meters (54 ft) at mid-tide * The artificial Mira Flores Lake is the next stage, 1.7 kilometers (1.0 mi) long, and 16.5 meters (54 ft) above sea level * The single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, which is 1.4 kilometers (0.8mi) long, is the last part of the ascent with a lift of 9.5 metres (31 ft) up to the main level of the canal * The Gaillard (Culebra) Cut slices 12.6 kilometers (7.8 mi) through the continental divide at an altitude of 26 metres (85 ft), and passes under the Centennial Bridge * The Chagres River (Rio Chagres), a natural waterway enhanced by the damming of Lake Gaton, runs west about 8.5 kilometers (5.3 mi), merging into Lake Gatun * Gatun Lake, an artificial lake formed by the building of the Gatun Dam, carries vessels 24.2 kilometers (15.0 mi) across the isthmus * The Gaton locks, a three-stage flight of locks 1.9 kilometers (1.2 mi) long, drop ships back down to sea level * A 3.2 kilometer (2.0 mi) channel forms the approach to the locks from the Atlantic side * Limon Bay (Bahia Limon), a huge natural harbor, provides an anchorage for some ships awaiting transit, and runs 8.7 kilometers (5.4 mi) to the outer breakwater
The total transit from the Pacific entrance channel to the Atlantic breakwater is 76.9 kilometers (47.8 mi). The maximum tidal range on the Pacific side is from +3.35 meters (+11.0 ft) to -3.20 meters (-10.5?ft); hence the lift at Mira Flores varies between 13.1 meters (43 ft) at extreme high tide and 19.7 meters (64.5?ft) at extreme low tide. The tidal range on the Atlantic side does not exceed 60 centimeters (24 in). Mean sea level at the Pacific end of the canal is on average about 20 centimeters (8 in) higher than at the Atlantic end. Limon Bay, on the Atlantic side, is a sheltered anchorage protected by a seawall; however, the space inside the bay is no longer adequate for the number and size of ships using the canal, and many ships wait at anchor in the open sea outside the bay. The anchorage on the Pacific side is open although it is protected by the enclosed topography of the Gulf of Panama. Locks The most visually impressive feature of the canal de oceanos panama, canal is its locks. The lock chambers are 33.53 meters (110 ft) wide with a usable length of 304.8 meters (1000 ft). The available water depth in the lock chambers varies, but the least depth of 12.55 meters (41.2 ft) is at the south sill of the Pedro Miguel locks. These dimensions determine the maximum size of ships which can use the canal, canal de oceanos panama ; this size is known as Panamax. All of the locks on the canal, canal de oceanos panama are paired; there are two parallel flights of locks at each of the three lock sites, which in principle allow ships to pass in opposite directions simultaneously. However, large ships cannot cross safely at speed in the Gaillard Cut; in practice ship traffic flows alternately, using both "lanes" of the locks in one direction at a time. Each lock chamber requires 101,000 cubic meters of water (26.7 million U.S. gallons) to fill; this water enters the chamber by gravity via a network of culverts beneath each lock chamber. Ships are hauled through the locks by small railway engines called mules (mules, named after the animals traditionally used to pull barges), running on tracks on the lock walls; smaller vessels, such as small tour boats and private yachts, are taken as hand line transits where mooring lines to the lock walls are handled manually by line handlers on the vessel. Gaton and Alajuela lakes Lake Gaton and the enhanced Chagres River (Rio Chagres) are key components of the canal, carrying ships a significant part of the way across the isthmus. The lake also acts as a reservoir, storing water to allow the locks to continue operation during the dry season. The lake was formed, and the river widened and deepened, by the construction of the Gatun Dam on the Chagres River. This flooded the originally wooded valley; almost a century later, the stumps of old mahogany trees can still be seen rising from the water, and submerged snags form a hazard for small vessels that wander off the marked channels. There is a small "shortcut" channel through the lake, the "Banana Cut", providing a slightly shorter route; this is used by canal launches and yachts and to avoid the heavy ship traffic. Several islands are located within the Lake Gaton portion of the Panama Canal, including Barro Colorado Island, home of the world famous Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI). The volume of water used by ships passing through the locks, combined with the seasonal nature of the rainfall in Panama, makes it difficult to maintain the level of Lake Gaton, particularly in the dry season. An additional dam, the Madden Dam, was therefore built across the Chagres above Lake Gatun. This created Alajuela Lake” also known as Madden Lake” which provides additional water storage for the canal. Crossings There are several crossings over the canal, canal de oceanos panama. At the south (Pacific) end is the Bridge of the Americas, a major road bridge which opened in 1962; for many years, this was the only permanent crossing of the canal, canal de oceanos panama. Before its construction, most traffic used a ferry at the same location. Further north, at the Mira Flores locks, there is a swinging road/rail bridge; opened in 1942, it can only carry traffic when no ship is passing, and is now rarely used. At the same point, a small swinging road bridge is built in to the Mira Flores lock structure; this is also rarely used. The newest crossing is the Centennial Bridge, which crosses over the Gaillard Cut just north of the Pedro Miguel locks; this major six-lane road bridge was completed in 2004 (although it opened to traffic in 2005). Finally, another small swinging road bridge is built in to the lock structure at the Gaton Locks; this bridge is only usable when the lock gates are closed, and it has a very small capacity.In addition to the public crossings, canal workers may walk across the lock gates when they are closed. Tolls RORO carriers, such as this one at Mira Flores locks, are among the largest ships to use the canal.Tolls for the canal, canal de oceanos panama, are decided by the Panama Canal Authority and are based on vessel type, size, and the type of cargo carried.For container ships, the toll is assessed per "TEU" (Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit), which is the size of a container measuring 20 feet by 8 feet by 8.5 feet (6m by 2.4 m by 2.6 m). Effective May 1, 2006, this toll is $49 per TEU. This is scheduled to rise to $54 on May 1, 2007. (A Panamax container ship may carry up to 4,400 TEU.) A reduced toll is charged for container ships "in ballast"; ie. traveling empty, with no cargo or passengers.Most other types of vessel pay a toll per PC/UMS net ton, in which one "ton" is actually a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.8 m ). (The calculation of tonnage for commercial vessels is quite complex.) As of 2006, this toll is $2.96 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, $2.90 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and $2.85 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, a reduced toll is charged for freight ships "in ballast". Small vessels are assessed tolls based on their length. As of 2006, these are:Length of vessel Toll Up to 15.240 meters (50 ft) $500More than 15.240 meters (50 ft) up to 24.384 meters (80 ft) $750More than 24.384 meters (80 ft) up to 30.480 meters (100ft)$1,000More than 30.480 meters (100 ft) $1,500 The most expensive toll for canal, canal de oceanos panama passage to date was charged on May 30, 2006 to the container ship Maersk Dellys, which paid $249,165.00 for passage. The least expensive toll was 36 cents to American adventurer Richard Halliburton who swam the canal in 1928. The average toll is around $54,000. Current issues More than ninety years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy great success. Even though world shipping and the size and design of ships themselves have changed beyond recognition since the canal, canal de oceanos panama, was designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more cargo than ever before, with less overhead. Nevertheless, the canal certainly faces a number of potential problems. Efficiency and maintenance
There were fears that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the U.S. withdrawal; however, this does not appear to be the case, and the canal's efficiency appears to be improving under Panamanian control. Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of efficiency; according to the ACP, CWT is decreasing. At the same time, the rate of accidents is at a record low. Increasing volumes of imports from Asia which previously landed in the U.S. west coast ports are now traveling through the canal to the east coast. The total number of vessel transits in fiscal year 1999 was 14,336; this fell to a low of 13,154 in 2003, due at least in part to global economic factors, but has risen to 14,011 in 2005 (the canals fiscal year runs from October to September). However, this has been coupled with a steady rise in average ship size and in the numbers of Panamax vessels transiting, so that the total tonnage carried has risen steadily from 227.9 million PC/UMS tons in fiscal year 1999 to 278.8 million tons in 2005. Given the negative impact of vessel size on the rate of transits (for example, the inability of large vessels to cross in the Gaillard Cut), this represents significant overall growth in canal capacity, despite the reduction in total transits. The canal set a traffic record on March 16, 2004, with 1,005,551 PC/UMS tons of cargo transited in a single day; this was broken on March 13, 2006, when 1,070,023 PC/UMS tons transited the waterway. The canal, canal de oceanos panama, administration has invested nearly $1 billion in widening and modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20%.The canal authority cites a number of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions on crossing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific Entrances of the Canal, canal de oceanos panama. This is supported by new vessels, such as a new drill barge and suction dredger, and an increase of the tugboat fleet by 20%. In addition, improvements have been made to the operating machinery of the canal, including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than 16 kilometers of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have been made to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in the canal. The withdrawal of the U.S. has allowed Panama to sell excess electricity produced by the canal's dams, which was previously prohibited by the U.S. government. Only 25% of the hydroelectric power produced in the canal system is required to run the canal. Capacity The canal, canal de oceanos panama, is presently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by its builders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would be around 80 million tons per year; as noted above, canal traffic in 2005 consisted of 278.8 million tons of shipping. Despite the gains which have been made in efficiency, the canal is soon expected to approach its maximum capacity. An additional complication is that the proportion of large (close to Panamax-sized) ships transiting is increasing steadily; this may result in a further reduction in the number of transits, even if cargo tonnage rises. In any case, if the canal, canal de oceanos panama, is to continue to serve the needs of world shipping, action will be required to increase its capacity.
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